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Volume 6, Number Number 2 (1982) reprinted by permission Legal Studies Forum DICKENS AND HIS LAWYERS RONALD BAUGHMAN* presenting lawyers in his works. This pattern suggests that the author intended his lawyers to have some significance beyond their surface value. Most critical opinions, however, have neglected the possible implications of this pattern. Generally, the lawyers have been treated simply as parts of other investigations, or as objects of Dickens' contempt. William Holdsworth's Charles Dickens as a Legal Historianl attempts the most exacting study of the law and the lawyer in Dickens' works. Holdsworth's purpose, however, is not an interpretation of the lawyer; rather, he uses Dickens' fictionalized legal accounts as a means of illuminating nineteenth-century English law. Robert D. Neely's The Lawyers of Dickens and Their Clerks lists and describes the lawyers, but does not offer any discussion of the novelist's art or of the place of lawyers in Dickens' view of life. He does express the opinion, however, that Dickens had a disdain for lawyers. "One of the most marked prejudices was his dislike of lawyers, and all that pertained to the machinery of government."2 This hatred is explained and justified in various ways. Philip Collins in Dickens and Crime states that the author was following a literary tradition in treating the lawyers vituperatively.3 In Charles Dickens: His Tragedy and Triumph Edgar Johnson sees Dickens' treatment of lawyers as one more aspect of his hatred of business.4 And Humphrey House in The Dickens World views the lawyer similarly to Johnson; House states that the lawyer has only a business, professional approach to people and to life.5 Thus, the lawyers are dismissed without any careful examination of their part in the novels or in Dickens' picture of life. Apparently, Dickens felt there was a similarity between the young lawyer and the young artist, for he dramatized the two as having parallel occupational goals. Dickens indicates in David Copperfield that the young artist and the young lawyer must approach their occupations with the same earnestness of heart and mind; they both must work hard at their trade to achieve success. The novelist himself expressed a desire to be in law. Collins refers to Forster's brief mention of this desire. About the same time Dickens was telling another friend:What Forster fails to mention - probably he never knew of it - is the fact that this desire to be a magistrate was more than a mere "outbreak of momentary discontent" in 1846, but, represented a long-held ambition.6 Dickens' repeated consistent pattern in describing the lawyers is a key to finding the meaning of these characters. The descriptions of the lawyers pay particular attention to the head, the eyes, the hands, plus an over-all darkness of complexion, with facial hair and wigs contributing to this darkness. Second, the lawyers have a public or "professional" facade covering their inner feelings; a facade producing a duality in their personalities. Strongly independent men, they rely mostly, if not solely, on themselves; conversely, in the social situation, they are often inarticulate and awkward. Third, the lawyers place an emphasis on accuracy of thoughts, feelings, and facts. Because they are bachelors, unsuccessful suitors, or at best, unorthodox husbands, they have a degree of asexuality in their character. And lastly, they are connected with questions of life and of death; they are involved with the guilty, the damned, and the dead. Mr. Jaggers in Great Expectations is probably Dickens' most inclusive, finished view of a lawyer. Since his portrait seems to be the culmination of many preceding lawyer characters, Jaggers will be the main consideration in this essay. His description establishes the primary pattern for the interpretation of the other lawyers, since many of the details associated with him are repeated in the other characters. The initial description of Jaggers best illustrates Dickens's symbolic method with the lawyers. He was a burly man of an exceedingly dark complexion, lie down, but stood up bristling. His eyes were setThe main references, again, are the head, the hands, the eyes, and the darkness of complexion. Dickens suggests the center of reason, the place of intellect, in Jaggers's "exceedingly large head." The "correspondingly large hand" connotes the powerful tool of the intellect, the machine of the brain which accomplishes the reason's deeds. The emphasis on the eyes suggests great ability to perceive, which lends further strength to the power embodied in the head and hands. That the eyes are "very deep in his head" justifies their power by associating them with intellect and reason. That they are "disagreeably sharp and suspicious" implies that what they see is not always pleasant; the truth Jaggers sees must be confronted even though it is embittering and painful at times. The large watch-chain also becomes a significant object associated with Jaggers; it suggests his professional demand for accuracy. The watch, as an instrument of precision, reflects the lawyer's dealings with people; he treats others with a metallic, instrument-like coldness. The watch-chain, then, suggests Jaggers's professional efficiency; he demands an accuracy in speech and in feelings regarding facts. The scene in which Pip asks for money illustrates Jaggers's demand for accuracy. "Well! How much do you want?"Jaggers's dark complexion establishes his ambiguity; he is inscrutable to almost all the other characters in the novel. Just as his facial hair hides his face, Jaggers's darkness projects a mysterious quality separating him from the public. His darkness can be associated also with the shadow cast by questions of life or death over his law practice; the gloom of death is always with him. In conjunction with this interpretation of his darkness, Jaggers's bachelorhood provides another symbolic inference; his remaining a bachelor emphasizes his distance from people. Jaggers manipulates the events affecting the lives of many of the characters in the novel, while remaining emotionally uninvolved, seeking an intellectual aloofness. His power over others is like that of the artist controlling the lives of characters. Figuratively, Jaggers remains a sterile man disengaged from society. Just as he repeatedly washes his hands-washing away any trace of involvement or of guilt or participation--so too are his dealings with others clinical and detached. His bachelorhood serves to make him asexual in a sense; he is not involved with men or women, but rather he observes and directs them. "Mind you, Mr. Pip," said Wemmick..."I don't know thatThus, Jaggers's engagement with people is essentially directive. He possesses his clients in "soul and body," does their thinking and their "bothering," but threatens to let them "slip through his fingers" should they not follow his advice. His directiveness, consequently, depends upon complete submission, in mind and in body, on the part of his clients. In combination with his physical characteristics, Jaggers repeats certain actions which take on a symbolic significance. There was an expression of contempt on his face, and he everybody coldly and sarcastically.The forefinger - an extension of the hand, the intellect's tool - is bitten continually when Jaggers confronts people. Yoked with his contempt, coldness, and sarcasm, this can possibly be interpreted as a reflection of his biting and harsh dealings with others. He also uses the forefinger as a weapon to intimidate while interrogating; he points it accusingly to make his point. His sharp and biting intellect is given, consequently, a vehicle for his cold and unsentimental approach to people. The head image is also emphasized, but in a significantly unique respect. Dickens suggests that a division occurs in Jaggers; his head is on one side while his body is on one side. This implies a division between the intellect and the body, or possibly, between the intellectual world and the emotional world. Jaggers, then, keeps separate the intellectual world of his profession from his own private world of his emotions. The division in Jaggers's personality is also reflected in his environment-his places of work, particularly his office, and his home. These locations dramatize and extend many of his personal qualities and physical characteristics. Jaggers's places of work-Smithfield, Little Britain, and Newgate-are actual locations of filth and death. Smithfield is "all asmear with filth and fat and blood and foam ... " Newgate is a "grim, stone building" throwing gloom into Pip. Jaggers's office, however, is the most significant location, for it reflects in great detail his personal characteristics. Mr. Jaggers's room was lighted by a skylight only, and was fancied I could see how he leaned back in it, and bitDickens very carefully selected the details of this office, making them an extension of Jaggers. The novelist turns such ordinary objects as skylights, chairs, and masks into grotesque, terrifying objects, just as Jaggers himself is a grotesque, terrifying man. Such other aspects of the offices as the weapons and the "faces peculiarly swollen" are associated with the guilty and the dead, the clientele of this lawyer. As a feature of his office, the skylight suggests Jaggers's psychological make-up. Two features of this skylight should be considered: it corresponds to the head imagery of the lawyer; moreover, by receiving its light from above, as well as being positioned above, it carries a celestial connotation. Just as the priest functions between people and God's laws, so too does the lawyer act as the mediator between people and the principles of civil law. The head imagery is distinctly referred to here. The skylight suggests violent nature, in that it is "eccentrically patched, like a broken head;" it evokes fear in Pip by causing the " ... distorted adjoining houses" to "twist ... themselves to peep down ... through it." This is the same flavor of violence found in Smithfield, Little Britain, and Newgate. The law, the source of thought for the lawyer, is fragmented by each individual lawyer, just as the sunlight is fragmented through each skylight. And just as each skylight transmits the sunlight, so too does each lawyer transmit the law. Because Jaggers is involved with the "filth and fat and blood and foam" of a violent life, and because the law for Dickens is a distorted and eccentric framework of thought, Jaggers's psychological composition is given a graphic parallel in the skylight. The lawyer is surrounded in his office by objects that either evoke fear or are fearful in themselves. The death masks, for example, changing in their appearances, reflect Pip's changing emotional responses to Jaggers. The lawyer's chair, too, equated with a coffin, lends him an appearance of being immersed in death. Jaggers lives in the midst of death; he leans back into his coffin-chair and points his finger imperatively at the living. Thus, he is surrounded by death and is ultimately seen as a connecting force between life and death. Jaggers's home also reflects his personality and physical characteristics, but with an important difference. His home is ...rather a stately house ... The furniture was all veryThe home, then, reeks with a sense of the "bare, gloomy and little used," reflecting his professional, no-nonsense curtness. Yet, the interior of the home becomes the setting for such few and select gatherings as the dinner with Herbert Pocket and Pip; in the same manner the interior of the man allows a few, select people to view his own private nature, such as Pip and Pocket during the dinner. Thus, Jaggers's physical and environmental descriptions have shown his "professional" nature. The home, however, suggests a division in the man; it suggests a different sort of inner nature beneath this surface appearance. One important scene reveals his inner self, showing an inner warmth and tenderness. The scene occurs when Pip mentions Wemmick's home to Jaggers. This reference surprises Jaggers. ...Mr. Jaggers relaxed into something like a smile...Here Jaggers's amazement seems more like envy; his candidness not only embarrasses him, but it also conjures up thoughtful retrospection. The intrusion of Mike, his messenger, crying, saves Jaggers from revealing more personal feelings. With much relief from the situation, Wemmick and Jaggers blast Mike from the office: '"Now look here, my man,' said Mr. Jaggers, advancing a step, and pointing to the door, 'Get out."' (p. 484) The lawyer's horror of revealing "feelings" seems too exaggerated; one immediately submits that he protests too much. The occurrence prior to Mike's entrance supports this idea and undermines Jaggers's outcry. Jaggers wishes to hide his emotional responsiveness behind his mask of professionalism. While Jaggers clearly defines the overall descriptive pattern of the lawyer, other individual lawyers illustrate single points of this pattern. They emphasize these points while still manifesting many, if not all, of the traits shown in the general pattern. Grimwig and Uriah Heep, for example, through the contrast of their personalities establish a general trait of the lawyer's facade: the outer appearance of the lawyer usually indicates an opposite inner nature. Grimwig's name, his most immediately noticed feature, reflects his character duality. The word grim, the first half of his name, represents Grimwig's appearance to almost everyone in the novel; he is sharp and grim. With the addition of wig, however, another dimension of his character is shown. His name implies grimness; but, just as a wig is a facade covering the head of an English lawyer, so is his grimness a facade concealing his tenderness. Grimwig maintains a tough exterior to conceal a tender interior. In contrast, Heep's "umble" appearance disguises an inner selfish ambition for power. The lawyers generally are bachelors, unsuccessful suitors, or unorthodox husbands. They are independent men who do not lend themselves readily to involvement with others; they maintain an aloofness from people that denies intimacy. Carton pursues Lucie Manette, but fails to win her. Uriah Heep pursues Agnes, but also fails. Eugene Wrayburn finds his escape from dissipation and lack of purpose through marriage to Lizzie Hexam, but, for the most part, he is seen alone. Tulkinghorn, Grewgious, Grimwig, and Jaggers seem to be complacent bachelors. Metaphorically there is a strain of sterility in the lawyer's composition which helps place them further outside the social order; they appear to be symbolically asexual, consequently. Sally and Sampson Brass -the most important personifications of asexuality, are mateless and childless. More importantly, the Brasses, brother and sister exchange sexual roles; Sally assumes a masculine, directive control of the law office, while Sampson assumes a feminine, subservient role to his sister's will. Primarily, the law is, like the statue of justice, blindfolded to sex and station in its justice. It is an arbitrary set of ideas demanding that its practitioners be as equally neutral. The lawyers, then, as the progeny of the law, reflect this parental trait of neutrality. Integrated with the idea of asexuality is the association of sterility and of death. Since the lawyers are essentially detached and independent men, they appear as symbolically sterile men in society. As an extension of their personal sterility, the lawyers may be seen as representatives of death. Professionally and personally the lawyers are actively engaged with death; Carton and Tulkinghorn meet violent deaths; Wrayburn undergoes a metaphorical death and rebirth; and Grewgious, Grimwig, and Jaggers remain aloof and passive to such a degree as to appear almost inhuman. They seem rather to be dead in the midst of life. The lawyers' association with death is best personified by Tulkinghorn. He is an omniscient man, like Jaggers, who carries a sense of timelessness with him. His omniscience, like the death hovering over the lawyers, remains detached and indifferent. The dust associated with Tulkinghorn and the law is the universal dust of humankind; it touches all, animate and inanimate. The law and the lawyers are composed of this dust; they are made of the same dried material. This image, however, enlarges into the more pregnant image of the dust-to-dust aspect of the law. The lawyers, through their association with this dust, are engaged with the universal predicament of humanity; their involvement in this predicament is expressed in terms of their knowledge of and comradeship with death. They are involved not only with people in life, directing and controlling their actions, but also with the end, the cessation, the eradication of people-death. Eugene Wrayburn and Sydney Carton appear as obvious contradictions to such lawyers as Tulkinghorn and Jaggers; the younger men portray the lawyer in terms of the Romantic character. Carton and Jaggers when juxtaposed form a continuum-each representing an extreme pole-of one personality. Carton exhibits in a greater degree the Romantic qualities of the lawyers-their tender, inner nature-while Jaggers manifests the neo-Romantic, the man who has grown wise to the world, forcing his inner nature behind a toughened protective covering. The essential trait shared by both Wrayburn and Carton is that of obtaining a purpose in life. In relation to these Romantic men, Dickens's syllogism appears to equate personal purpose with a meaningful life. With the acquisition of love, Wrayburn and Carton gain their purpose in much the same manner as David Copperfield when he begins his writing career; they now approach life with a "disciplined and steady heart." In many respects, Mr. Grewgious offers a fitting finale to the lawyer character. As the last lawyer of Dickens, Grewgious presents a comic perspective on the lawyer, while still maintaining an important function in the overall picture of the lawyer. Dickens's treatment of Grewgious, by utilizing the details from his own descriptive formula for lawyers, ultimately parodies his own material. Though he is comic in appearance, Grewgious nonetheless manifests the lawyer's great concern for accuracy in any form of communication. The lawyers' concern for accuracy manifests their intelligence and their perceptive abilities. They seek to manipulate and to direct their clients by treating thoughts and feelings factually, as if they were exhibits for examination. Using this procedure, the lawyer seeks to arrive at the "essence" or truth of the human situation. Dickens's portrayal of the lawyer suggests a possible affinity between the lawyer and the artist. Before the equation of lawyer to artist can be fully explored, however, Dickens's antithesis of the artist should be considered. For Dickens, Harold Skimpole in Bleak House typifies the bohemian and the dilettante.8 In Skimpole, Dickens illustrates who and what the artist is not. Significantly, Skimpole, who calls himself an "amateur artist," reverses the descriptive pattern applied to lawyers. Also, he is contrasted to a lawyer, Mr. Vholes. Because this lawyer is introduced late in the novel, and because he has little apparent purpose or necessity in the resolution of its plot, Mr. Vholes seems as if he were created solely as a direct contrast to Skimpole. As his name implies, Skimpole is a man who skims the surface of things; he literally lives on the surface of life. ...we were presented to Mr. Skimpole. He was a littleEssentially, Dickens reverses the descriptive points of the lawyer in presenting Skimpole. In contrast to the lawyer's darkness, there is a sense of brightness and of frivolity in Skimpole. Rather than embodying the social awkwardness of a Carton or Grewgious, Skimpole is an articulate and an effortless man. His social grace and personal charm immediately involve him with people. He is not the secretive, self-conscious man who seeks accuracy in thoughts and in feelings; rather, he depends upon spontaneity and, consequently, is intellectually diffuse, though socially "captivating." Here also Skimpole is shown as the studied, narcissistic man posing as the artist; he dresses and postures as if he were having his portrait painted. The lawyers generally feel a strong sense of purpose and of intention, as did David Copperfield upon entering a writing career. Skimpole, however, glories in his inability to work, he purposely lacks a sense of direction and of responsibility. He sees himself as being made for less practical endeavors than work, and embodies a fashionable indifference towards working. Skimpole would rather pose as an artist than strive to be one. Mr. Skimpole...betook himself to beginning some sketch inPermeating his "art," is the sense of fragmentation; he lacks the persistence to complete his works. The features of incompleteness and of irresponsibility are graphically illustrated by his family. Skimpole is the father of three daughters. "You must see my daughters. I have a blue-eyed daughterPresumably, these three daughters, or elements-Beauty, Sentiment and Comedy-would compose the art sired by Skim- pole should he complete any of his beginnings. Like Skimpole, his daughters project a sense of hedonism. "In this family we are all children, and I am the He laughed, but as usual seemed quite candid and really toAs shown here, Skimpole glories in his inability to perform ordinary functions requiring a "practical wisdom." Instead, he chooses to "look on" life, to be "interested," and to "live upon" those able to operate in the practical world. In trying to justify why Skimpole is "such a child," Mr. Jarndyce suggests: "Why ... he is all sentiment, and-and susceptibility, and-As a man and an "artist"' Skimpole remains stunted in the embryo stage; he is little else than a childish man in. thought and in action, responding with an ineffectual and an inappropriate "sympathy for everything." If, as Jarndyce reflects, Skimpole had received "training," and had "regulated" his sentiment ... susceptibility ... sensibility...imagination," he perhaps would have matured as a man and an artist. Instead, however, he merely touches the surface of art and of life. As Dickens states, in "The Sensational Williams," appearing in All the Year Round, and attributed to Dickens by Monroe Engel: "...the difference between an artist who can look into the psychology of crime and terror, and the botcher who can do nothing more than lay on the carmine with a liberal brush is so great as to be essential." (p. 14)10 Because he is unable to "look into crime and terror," restricting himself instead to Beauty, Sentiment, and Comedy, Skimpole is a "botcher," applying "carmine with a liberal brush." He represents the false, would-be artist. Vholes, in contrast to Skimpole, is a man involved in the "psychology of crime and terror," and a man with a personal direction and purpose. "Sir ... it is a part of my professional duty to know best.Vholes does more than merely "look on" life; his "professional duty" is to study and to understand. His training in the law regulates and disciplines his study. Vholes, like Skimpole, has three daughters-Emma, Jane, and Caroline. These daughters are plain, insignificant characters, but precisely because they are plain, they offer a meaningful contrast to Skimpole's daughters. Like their father, Vhole's daughters have no frills nor fanciness; presumably, they are the "practical" beings Skimpole lives upon. Consequently, Vholes produces responsible, stable offspring, while Skimpole creates nothing but effervescent, empty fragments. Thus Dickens negates the idea that the dilettante and the undisciplined person exemplifies the artist. Instead, he presents the artist in terms similar to those which define the lawyer who is disciplined and directive. In regard to his being "interested," and his looking on life, Skimpole asks: "What more can I do?" Dickens seems to agree with Skimpole, as his satirical treatment suggests: as an "amateur artist" there is little else Skimpole can do. But as a mature artist, Dickens supplies a different answer as to what the artist is and how one functions with society. The lawyer illustrates Dickens's demand for an unsentimental, regulated vocation in life. The lawyer is a person whose heart, like David Copperfield's, is disciplined and resolute. The lawyer confronts the total of society with a stoic and an impartial eye, and is, consequently, an important instructor and director of society. Dickens, as an artist, felt a personal affinity with the lawyer. And it is with this perspective that the lawyer will be interpreted as having an affinity with the artist, a worker functioning with, not in, society. Since both the lawyer and the artist are concerned with society, they must impose an order that does not necessarily exist to a specific human situation. That is, given a conflict between two opposing forces-the material for a dramatic situation as well as for a court proceeding-instead of dissipating the conflict, the lawyer and the artist must isolate, define, and bring the conflict to a climax and a resolution. The tools necessary for this process involve the intellect, the power of perception, and an ability to translate these features into actual accomplishments-an ability to work. These aspects, it has been suggested, have been symbolically represented by the head, the eyes, and the hands, respectively. The lawyers, as directive and instructive people, demand an accuracy of perceptions and of intelligence in order to work efficiently. The lawyer and the artist both must critically and dispassionately analyze while being emotionally committed, like Vholes, who carries an "inward And dispassionate manner." (p. 458) Consequently, a two-fold nature is employed in their performance of work wherein a paradox exists; the lawyer and the artist have an emotional commitment as well as an intellectual aloofness. In the article "Writing for Periodicals," appearing September 23, 1865, in All the Year Round Dickens presents a purely mechanical parallel between ibe artist and the lawyer illustrating their dispassionate approach to work. Periodical writers occasionally have to handle topicsIn this parallel the artist's approach to work is exactly the same as the lawyer's. It might be argued that this view makes the artist appear as a mental bricklayer. Careful consideration of the passage, however, will indicate that the novelist is advocating an exacting, dispassionate, almost clinical approach to writing. Hard work and thorough knowledge of one's material seem to be essential not only to the lawyer but to the artist as well. The mere act of putting pen to paper and producing words involves an amount of cold calculations. Although the writer's words may evoke strong emotional responses, the good writer must be in control of emotions and of thoughts to guide these responses. One must have control of one's material, rather than to allow the material to control. Similarly, the lawyers seek control of their clients' thoughts and feelings while conducting their "professional duty." It is this attitude of controlled calculation which causes such lawyers as Tulkinghorn and Jaggers to demand precision of thoughts, of feelings, and of facts. It is this attitude of dispassion which, also creates a gap between the lawyer and the public, the artist and the mass. The lawyers, especially Jaggers and Tulkinghorn, seek this dispassionate approach in their work. They attempt a 'professional method" that raises them above emotions. Tulkinghorn operates behind an "expressionless mask," while Jaggers wants "no feelings" in his office. Carton, too, hides behind a "gloomy" crust. The interior of the lawyers is hidden beneath their exterior; this schizophrenic division in the lawyers creates their ambiguity to others. The lawyers' distance from people is also heightened by their symbolic asexuality; they remain sterile in society, detached from people. In this manner, the lawyer is seen as existing outside the social context; more of a director than a participator in society. The artist also remains outside of the general mass in order "to study and to understand" as does Vholes. In both the poetry and fiction of the nineteenth centuryWhat Robert Strange has mentioned as the "desire... not to care," can be labeled the dispassionate approach advocated by Dickens. This method, however, should not be interpreted as not caring; otherwise, there would be little reason to approach art at all. Rather, this manner of operation serves as a means of protecting the artist and the lawyer from "all that he as poet and feeling man" is. It is a means of putting the thoughts and the emotions of an artist into perspective in order to dissect and to resolve material accurately. Henry Miller states: "There will always be a gulf between the creative artist and the public because the latter is immune to the mystery inherent in and surrounding all creation."13 It is this idea of "mystery," together with the "gulf between ... artist and the public," that is represented in Dickens's treatment of the lawyer. The lawyer, or the artist, shields self behind a critical eye, a vantage point attained by an exterior facade. Finally, the lawyer and the artist are concerned with the ultimate predicament of humanity; they are involved in the life- death aspect of existence. Tulkinghorn, Carton, and Jaggers express this acquaintance with death most readily. Tulkinghorn's omniscience concerning people, as well as his apathy towards people, illustrates the lawyer's stoic response to death. Carton goes to his death romantically for the love of a woman and is said to have "a sublime and prophetic look." Jaggers is seen as a connecting force between life and death; he holds the power of life and death for many characters, just as he personifies life in the midst of death. The darkness of the lawyers' complexion indicates the shadow of death impressed upon their intellect. . John Hagan, Jr. said of Jaggers: ... (he) simply saw too much of life."14 There will always be men like Jaggers.--to act as the linkJaggers has seen much of life, but it is precisely because he has seen that he is able to act and to influence as he does. His ability to link the "underground man and the rest of society," to give "hope of salvation and resurrection," enables Jaggers to connect the living and the dead. The person of property and the person dispossessed retain the same stamp of humanity which Jaggers treats impartially. The artist, too, tends to view people with a similar leveling of station; seeking the inner essence, rather than the social surface, of people. And just as Grewgious occupies an important role in Bazard's drama "The Thorn of Anxiety" -or society-so too do Jaggers and the other lawyers become involved in this drama of life. It is this thorn in their intellect, the seeing of too much of life which compels them to comment about and to instruct people. It is this thorn of society's which causes the lawyer-artist to be expelled from the social mythos, aloof from its barbs. This thorn and this aloofness give the lawyer and the artist, when confronted with death, an ultimate look of the "sublime and prophetic." * College of Applied Professional Sciences, University of South Carolina. Reprinted with permission from Drury College Alumni Review, 1967. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1929. 2. Robert D. Neely, The Lawyers of Dickens and Their Clerks (Boston: Christopher Publishing House, 1936), p.9. 3. Philip Collins, Dickens and Crime (London: Macmillan and Co., 1964), p. 174. 4. Edgar Johnson, Charles Dickens: His Tragedy and Triumph, (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1952), p. 990. 5. Humphrey House, The Dickens World (London: Oxford Press, 1941), pp. 55-56. 6. Collins, pp. 177-78. 7. Charles Dickens, Great Expectations (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1899), Vol. XVI p. 13. 8. John Forster, The Life of Charles Dickens (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1900),Vo1. XXXVI, pp. 123-34. 9. Charles Dickens, Bleak House (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1899), Vol. XVI, pp. 83-84. 10. Monroe Engel, "Dickens on Art," Modern Philology 53:25-38, August, 1955, p. 37. 11. "Writing for Periodicals," All the Year Round (London: Chapman and Hall, 1865), Vol. XIV, September 23, pp. 200- 204. It was a well-known fact that Dickens was a tyrannical "conductor" of this periodical. Consequently, this unsigned article reflects Dickens's personal belief, if he did not write it himself. 12. Robert Stange, "Expectations Well Lost: Dickens's Fable for His Time," College English 16: 9-17, October, 1954, p. 16. 13. Henry Miller, "Obscenity and the Law of Reflections," Remember to Remember (New York: New Directions, 1947), p. 280. 14. John Hagan, Jr., "Structural Patterns in Dickens's Great Expectations," English Literary History, 21: 54-66, March, 1954. 15. John Hagan, Jr., "The Poor Labyrinth: The Theme of Social Injustice in Dickens' Great Expectations", Nineteenth- Century Fiction, 9: 169-178, December, 1954, p. 178 |
